FOOTSTEPS OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT!
After ascending the throne of Macedon, Alexander the Great set his sights on conquering the vast Persian Empire. In the spring of 334 BC, he departed from Amphipolis in Central Macedonia, leading his army toward Asia. By May of the same year, having crossed the Dardanelles Strait, he fought the first major battle of his Asian campaign on the banks of the Granikos River, located in the northeastern part of ancient Troas.
Continuing along the Gallipoli Peninsula, Alexander paused to visit the tomb of Protesilaos, one of the legendary heroes mentioned in Homer’s Iliad. As a tribute, he lit a great ceremonial fire upon the site. He then crossed the Dardanelles to Troy, driven by his deep admiration for Achilles, the greatest warrior of the Iliad. Ancient Greek and Roman writers describe the tomb of Achilles as being located at the Sivritepe Tumulus.
This visit held deep symbolic meaning for Alexander. He believed his lineage descended from Andromache—the wife of Hector, the Trojan prince—while also tracing another line of ancestry to Achilles, the very hero who fought and killed Hector during the Trojan War. This dual heritage made Troy not just a stop on his route, but a place of profound personal connection. The nearby Besike Cape, situated along the shoreline, is also referred to as “Achilleion” in ancient sources.
ROAD THROUGH PERKOTE
After regrouping with his forces in Abydos, Alexander marched toward the ancient city of Perkote. Mentioned in Homer’s Iliad, Perkote was an Anatolian settlement whose name in the Luwi–Pelasgic language meant “High Fortress.” From there, the Macedonian army set up camp on the Arisbe Plain—known in antiquity as Zeleia—before advancing eastward to reach Lampsakos (modern-day Lapseki).
Alexander’s next major objective was the city of Daskyleion, the administrative center of the Persian satrapy in the region. Lapseki itself has deep Anatolian roots: long before the Hellenic migrations, it was known as Pityausa. The later name, Lampsakos, is said to derive from Lampseke, the daughter of King Mandrom, reflecting the city’s mythological heritage.
One of the most striking details about ancient Lampsakos is found on its coinage. Coins minted here often featured a winged horse—Pegasus, symbolizing both the city’s status and its cultural connections to Greek mythological tradition.
MACEDONIAN ARMY AND PERSIAN ARMY FIGTS
The Macedonian army encountered the Persian forces for the first time at the Battle of Granikos, fought near the modern Biga River. The clash was fierce and decisive. Among the Persian ranks were thousands of experienced Greek mercenaries. Their commander, Memnon of Rhodes, understood the formidable power of the Macedonian phalanx and strongly advised avoiding a direct confrontation. Instead, he proposed a strategic retreat deep into Persian territory, destroying crops and food supplies along the way. By doing so, the advancing Macedonian army would suffer from hunger, disrupted logistics, and weakened morale.
However, Memnon’s strategic plan was rejected by the Persian war council. Confident in their numbers, the Persian commanders opted for an immediate and direct attack. The region’s importance cannot be overstated: positioned between Ancient Troas and Mysia, it was famously referred to as “The Gates of Asia.” Moreover, crucial roads linking Daskyleion—the capital of the Hellespontine Phrygia satrapy—to Kyzikos and Lampsakos passed directly through this area.
Although choosing the battlefield at Granikos seemed to give the Persians an advantage by forcing Alexander to fight on their terms, the outcome proved otherwise.
The Persians placed their greatest trust in their cavalry, and ancient historians such as Diodoros and Arrianos remain the most reliable sources for describing the battle. Approximately 20,000 Persian cavalry were deployed along a 2.5-kilometer line on the eastern slopes of the Granikos plain, arranged in sixteen dense ranks.
The left wing consisted of Greek mercenaries of uncertain number, alongside forces from the Persian provinces. Posting from left to right were:
Arsames, the satrap of Cilicia
Artistes, the Hellespontine Phrygian satrap, accompanied by Paphlagonians
Spithridates, the satrap of Lydia and Ionia, supported by Hyrcanian cavalry
The central command remains uncertain, although it was likely held by the Cappadocians under the leadership of Satrap Mithrovouzanes. The right wing was composed of 2,000 Bactrian cavalry, another 2,000 soldiers under the command of Reominthas, and 1,000 Median horsemen.
Behind the cavalry line stood fewer than 20,000 Persian infantry, including an estimated 5,000 Greek mercenaries.
Alexander faced this force with approximately 5,100 cavalry and 13,000 infantry. He personally commanded the right wing, while his trusted general Parmenion held the left. During the chaotic melee of the battle, Alexander’s life was momentarily in danger, but he was saved by his companion Kleitos the Black, who struck down an enemy poised to deliver a fatal blow.
MACEDONIAN ARMY BEATS PERSIAN ARMY
Among the many factors that shaped the outcome of the Battle of Granikos, Alexander’s strategic genius stood at the forefront. His ability to read the battlefield, act decisively, and exploit the weaknesses of his opponents played a crucial role in securing his first major victory on Asian soil.
At the heart of the Macedonian war machine stood the phalanx, a formidable corps of professional infantrymen wielding six-meter-long spears known as sarissas. Locked shoulder to shoulder in disciplined ranks, the phalanx advanced as an impenetrable wall of spear points. Despite being outnumbered, these soldiers broke through the Persian lines with remarkable effectiveness. The skilled general Parmenion, one of Alexander’s closest and most trusted commanders, also contributed significantly to the success of the operation.
The Battle of Granikos became the turning point through which much of the Persian military presence in Western Anatolia was shattered almost instantly. With this victory, the gates of Western Anatolia opened wide for Alexander the Great, allowing him to push deeper into Persian territory with confidence and momentum.
The Persian army suffered heavy losses, including several high-ranking commanders. In contrast, Macedonian casualties were surprisingly low: only twenty-five Hetairoi, sixty cavalrymen, and around thirty infantry soldiers fell in battle. This stark difference in losses further emphasized the effectiveness of Macedonian tactics and the discipline of their troops.
WESTERN ANATOLIAN GATES OPENS
Sardes, the capital of the Persian satrap Lydia, which was the beginning of the famous King’s Road, was seized in June 334 B.C. Heading towards the Ionian shores, Alexander the Great then comes to Ephesus. Although Alexander the Great offered to pay money for the reconstruction of the Temple of Artemis, which Herostratus burned to become famous in 356 BC, the proud people of Ephesus refused this donation/supportation.
EXTRA NOTE ABOUT FUTURE OF EPHESUS CITY
After Alexander the Great died, Lysimakhos, one of the generals of Alexander, took the City of Ephesus. Lysimakhos rebuilt the city and moved the city to the slopes of the Panayır and Bülbül mountains by building a new port. After this date, Ephesus has become one of the most important commercial ports of the Mediterranean. And, it had the golden ages. In addition, it became one of the capitals of the Roman Empire!
ALEXANDER’S JOURNEY CONTINUES TO MILETUS
After his visit to Ephesus, Alexander advanced toward Magnesia ad Meandrum (today within the Germencik district of Aydın Province). Founded by the Magnetes of Thessaly, the city surrendered peacefully without offering resistance. From there, Alexander continued southward and laid siege to Miletus, one of the most prominent ancient cities of Ionia.
Initially, the city’s governor agreed to surrender. However, upon learning that 400 Persian ships were approaching to provide support, he quickly reversed his decision. The situation changed once again when the Macedonian fleet of 160 ships, commanded by Nicanor—the son of Alexander’s trusted general Parmenion—arrived at Miletus. This confrontation marked Alexander’s first naval engagement against the Persians.
Despite the Persians’ superior numbers at sea, the Macedonian forces prevailed. The city of Miletus eventually fell, allowing Alexander to secure yet another strategically significant victory along the coast of Asia Minor.
ALEXANDER THE GREAT CAPTURES ALL WESTERN ANATOLIA
The people of Halicarnassus resisted Alexander fiercely, holding out behind their fortified walls for nearly three months. Despite their determination—and significant Persian support—the defenders were ultimately unable to withstand the Macedonian siege. After persistent assaults and strategic pressure, Alexander finally captured the city.
With the fall of Halicarnassus, control of the region shifted swiftly. The Carian princess, Ada of Caria, who had earlier allied herself with Alexander, was reinstated as ruler—further strengthening Alexander’s influence across the area. By this point, Alexander the Great had effectively secured the entirety of Western Anatolia, establishing a strong foundation for the next stages of his campaign deeper into Persian territory.
ROAD TO MEDITERRANEAN COASTAL
In the spring of 333 BC, Alexander the Great, following the Mediterranean coastal road, captured the cities of Xanthos (Kınık), Antiphellos (Kaş), Phaselis (Faselis), Perge, Aspendos, and Sagalassos near Burdur one by one. Heading towards Central Anatolia and from there to Ankara and from there, goes south through Cappadocia and Cilicia.
BATTLE OF ISSOS ON PINAROS
Persian ruler Darius confronts Alexander once again, knowing that he is next. In the autumn of 333 BCE, he suffers a decisive defeat in the famous Battle of Issos on the coast of Pinaros (Deliçay) and escapes, leaving his family on the battlefield.
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